Group Members: Anna Lee, Stephanie Adim, and Zoe Price
Resources on Air Pollution in Ghana
Anna Lee
Air pollution in Ghana: Causes, effects and solutions. (n.d.). N99 and CE Air Pollution Masks | ATC MASK. Retrieved March 16, 2022, from https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/air-pollution-in-ghana-causes-effects-solutions
Chasant reports on the levels of toxic air in Ghana that are causing many health-related issues for thousands of people each year. He notes that there are only 15 locations for monitoring Ghana’s air quality and how on top of this, there are no forms of alerts given to the citizens when the air quality becomes particularly hazardous. The author then goes into listing the four main causes for air pollution, those being: toxic smoke from car exhaust, open burning of residential trash, biomass burning, and dust from unpaved roads. Chasant then goes to explain the effects this air pollution has on its citizens and also some possible solutions for Ghana moving forward.
Akomfrah, J. (2017). Purple. https://www.icaboston.org/art/john-akomfrah/purple
Purple is an immersive video installation created by John Akomfrah. Akomfrah uses film footage and sound to address themes related to climate change across the planet. It allows us to see the effects on humans, biodiversity, and nature. Purple conveys the complex yet fragile relation of humans to nature that allows his audience to feel the weight of these issues.
Arku, R. E., Vallarino, J., Dionisio, K. L., Willis, R., Choi, H., Wilson, J. G., … & Ezzati, M. (2008). Characterizing air pollution in two low-income neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana. Science of the total environment, 402(2-3), 217-231.
In this article, the authors describe how Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rate of urban population growth in the world. With this, a large number of these urban residents actually live in low-income “slum” neighborhoods. The authors conducted a study for an initial assessment of the levels and spatial and/or temporal patterns of multiple pollutants in the ambient air in two low-income neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana. They found that there is evidence for biomass and traffic source contribution to particle pollution in the air. At the end, they also delve into the implications of their results for future urban air pollution monitoring.
Brockmeyer, S., & d’Angiulli, A. (2016). How air pollution alters brain development: the role of neuroinflammation. Translational neuroscience, 7(1), 24-30.
This paper explores the evidence and examples of how several sample populations of children who live in large cities suffer from air pollution exposure. These samples are from all over the world and show how there are types of neural, behavioral, and cognitive changes associated with the pollution. The authors emphasize the significance of neurocognitive effects and how even though it can be subtle, it can be early evidence of more serious neurodegenerative changes in a person. They also point out the importance of figuring out ways to more efficiently monitor and measure the neurocognitive effects on local pediatric populations.
Castleman, B. I. (1979). The export of hazardous factories to developing nations. International Journal of Health Services, 9(4), 569-606.
In this article, the authors examine the export of hazardous industrial plants to developing nations in order to see their negative effects of it. They emphasize how as hazardous and polluting industries become more regulated; exports are happening without improvements to make them less hazardous. This is a significant issue because it is happening in nonregulating countries where cheap and uninformed labor is the majority. The authors dive into “runaway shops” where companies market their products with the advantage of not having had to comply with pollution regulations. This article implores people to consider the impact that developing nations will have when becoming dumping grounds for hazard export from industrial nations.
Cobbinah, P. B., & Erdiaw-Kwasie, M. O. (2018). Urbanization in Ghana: Insights and implications for urban governance. In E-planning and collaboration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 256-278). IGI Global.
In this research paper, Cobbinah and Erdiaw-Kwasie explore the reality of how African urbanization is increasing urban poverty and disrupting urban functionality. They use Ghana as a case study to examine the impacts of urbanization. They conclude that new institutional reforms should be made to help facilitate information between urban governance processes and the residents. This in turn will encourage political leaders in Africa to commit themselves to supporting urban management programs. Moving towards this may lead to effective urban governance where the environment, economy and society are able to coexist effectively.
D’Angiulli, A. (2018). Severe urban outdoor air pollution and children’s structural and functional brain development, from evidence to precautionary strategic action. Frontiers in public health, 6, 95.
With the latest estimates showing that about 2 billion children around the world are being exposed to severe urban outdoor air pollution, the author explores the detrimental effects that this can have on children. Some of the effects that this pollution has on the brain include intellectual and cognitive development, memory and executive functions, emotion and self-regulation, and academic achievement. Regardless of the challenges that come from non-scientific issues that influence policy, the evidence that the author collects invites the conclusion that urban outdoor air pollution is a serious threat to brain development and is something that could potentially create conditions for other neurodegenerative diseases. There is evidence to prove that urgent precautionary actions in minimizing pollution exposure needs to be taken in order to prevent detrimental brain development in children.
Emetere, M. E., & Dania, E. (2019, August). Short review on air pollution from cement factories. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1299, No. 1, p. 012033). IOP Publishing.
In this paper, the authors present the serious implications of pollution in cement factories. The authors start with laying out the data for the number of deaths that are recorded in places such as China and how air pollution is the clear determinant to many premature deaths. The air pollution that is caused by the process of making cement is deposited in nearby towns and communities, causing lasting damaging problems for those who live there. Based on the findings of the impact of pollution from cement factories, we learn that there should be the use of catalysts which remove pollutants such as Nitrogen oxides in the air to reduce the level of contamination in the atmosphere. As well as this, a recycling system could play a large role in this issue as some of the pollutants can be recycled into fuel.
Guardian News and Media. (2019, June 27). People of color live with 66% more air pollution, US study finds. The Guardian. Retrieved March 13, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/27/us-air-pollution-north-east-mid-atlantic-analysis-union-concerned-scientists
This article finds that African Americans in the north-east and mid-Atlantic are exposed to 61% more pollution particles from burning gasoline than their white counterparts. It explains how there has long been research that concludes that poor minority communities are more likely to live near air pollution, a sad reality that we call environmental racism. The effect of burning coal and other natural gas power plants is having a large contribution to particle pollution. These power plants are detrimental to the minority communities that they are typically built next to. It is also mentioned that the UCS said the figures and evidence confirm a need for electric cars, buses, trucks, and public transit to better the health of those living in pollution.
NIH study suggests: Kids living near major roads at higher risk of developmental delays. (2019, Apr). Call & Post Retrieved from https://login.proxy.library.emory.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.proxy.library.emory.edu/newspapers/nih-study-suggests-kids-living-near-major-roads/docview/2222552401/se-2?accountid=10747
This new article delves into the effects of living in close proximity to major roadways. The pollution that comes from cars are a large contributing factor to air pollution and it is causing measurable effects on the children who breathe it in every day. According to an analysis done by researchers at the National Institutes of Health and the University of California, Merced, children who live close to a major roadway are twice as likely to score lower on tests of communications skills. They were able to do this by tracking the addresses of their homes and the pollution levels in those areas. Through this research and analysis, they were able to conclude that early childhood exposure to air pollutants may convey a higher risk for delays and detrimental development. The authors also mention that the study is associational and therefore cannot prove cause and effect, but nonetheless is a topic worth doing more studies on.
Odonkor, S. T., & Mahami, T. (2020). Knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of air pollution in Accra, Ghana: A critical survey. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2020, 3657161. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3657161
Stephen T. Odonkor and Tahiru Mahami write about their study done to assess the knowledge and sentiment towards the air pollution in Accra, Ghana. They gathered quantitative data from 1,404 respondents and from there they were able to come to some conclusions. They found that 70.5% of the respondents were aware of the air pollution as well as its detrimental effects on health. Although the majority knew about the pollution and its effects, they found that in certain areas that were less educated and older, were less likely to know about it. Another sentiment to come out of this study was that most of the respondents felt that the air pollution was a responsibility weighing on every citizen in Accra.
Roper, K. (n.d.). Poems about pollution. LoveToKnow. Retrieved March 13, 2022, from https://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Poems_About_Pollution
Kelly Roper provides several poems written to bring awareness to pollution. From talking about darkened skies choking from air pollution to the clean streams of Roper’s childhood, these poems allow readers to feel the effects that pollution has had on the Earth and Roper as well. Roper also includes a poem called “Be Responsible” where lines of sustainable living are written to educate readers on how to play a part in protecting the Earth.
Tubi, O. Y. (2015). Oil: Africans’ Wealth and Woes Painting.
The artist of this painting, O Yemi Tubi originates from Nigeria and is often inspired by his home country in his art. “Oil: Africans’ Wealth and Woes” is inspired by the history of the lands of Nigeria which is rich in natural resources. Although abundant, the Nigerian government’s control over these resources have left the Nigerians extremely poor. O Yemi uses oil paint to bring out the vibrant clothes of the children in contrast to the dull and darkened skies. In the painting, the children are collecting water and drinking water from the polluted river. This artwork is significant because it portrays the shocking reality of those who live alongside pollution and how those as young as those in the painting are also living with the effects it causes.
United Nations. (n.d.). Polluted environments kill 1.7 million children each year, UN Health Agency reports. United Nations. Retrieved March 13, 2022, from https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/polluted-environments-kill-17-million-children-each-year-un-health-agency-reports
According to The United Nations health agency, unhealthy environments such as unclean water and second hand smoke are responsible for a fourth of children deaths. Due to their smaller airways and bodies, unclean air and water prove to be especially detrimental to them. They note that the main pollutant is air pollution and it can stunt brain development as well as cause even more issues in the long term such as heart disease or cancer. WHO comments on ways to counter these pollutant exposures and how improving water quality and using cleaner fuels is something worth investing in for the sake of people’s health.
Washington, H. A. (2020). A terrible thing to waste: Environmental racism and its assault on the American mind. Little, Brown & Company.
Washington writes on the impact that environmental racism has on Africans Americans and how they create a chain reaction of effects on the communities impacted. She delves into how issues such as not having access to healthy foods leave people with no choice but to have unhealthy diets, and more serious problems such as hereditary obesity. She explains how many examples of racist ideas stem from a deeper-rooted issue of history and environmental issues. Another key aspect she mentions is the toxic chemicals such as lead that African Americans have always had to live with and how it effects child development as well as mental health.
Information on Oil Pollution and Exploitation in the Niger Delta
Adunbi, O. (2015). Oil wealth and insurgency in Nigeria. Indiana University Press.
NDES. (1997).
Adunbi details the ways in which the people of Nigeria are exploited by oil companies and provides a cultural analogy. Essentially, oil companies promised to bring wealth to the communities in which they were drilling. They claimed they would send money to the government to then distribute to the people. The oil companies give the government just a fraction of what was earned, and the government gives the people just enough to think one day, there will be a big payday. He compares this to masquerades, which are prevalent in Yoruba culture. These masquerades dance and preform to bring blessings. There are small masquerades who preform for longer than big masquerades but get much less compensation. Adunbi compares these small masquerades to the Niger Delta oil communities; they work incredibly hard for little pay, but continue to do it because they believe one day they will make it big.
Anyanwu, C. I., & Lein, J. K. (2019). A geospatial appraisal of oil spill health impacts: A Niger
Delta case study. Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences, 15(78-88), 78-88.
This study used geospatial and human health data to try and find a connection between oil spills and infant diarrhea. Over 8,000 spills have happened in the last decade and children’s diarrheal illnesses are the cause of 1/9 children’s death worldwide. Finding a connection between the two is in an important metric that can potentially help influence policy change. The study did in fact find that communities with poor sanitation, a lack of clean water, and a closer proximity to areas with concentrated spills had higher instances of infant diarrhea.
Bamisaye, O. A., & Obiyan, A. S. (2006). Policy analysis of oil sector in Nigeria. Eur. J. Soc.
Sci, 3, 37-48.
This paper focused on trying to quantify how much, if any, improvement the oil industry has brought to Nigeria. They found that despite the industry being wildly profitable, there was nothing to show for it in terms of development. The communities that are producing oil look worse than they did when the oil companies first came in. It seems that oil multinationals are the only ones benefitting from this. Additionally, domestic oil prices in Nigeria have skyrocketed, creating even more economic stress for the people there.
Einashe, I. (2018, September 11). ‘It’s Time to Decolonize Environmentalism’: An Interview
with Zina Saro-Wiwa. Frieze. https://www.frieze.com/article/its-time-decolonize-
environmentalism-interview-zina-saro-wiwaeze.
Zina Saro-Wiwa is the daughter of revolutionary human rights activist Ken Saro-Wiwa who fought fiercely against the exploitation of the land and people of Nigeria. Zina Saro-Wiwa uses visual art to focus on her environmentalism, and she says she doesn’t consider herself an activist per say. She doesn’t want to be tied to one issue for the rest of her life, and she rejects Western environmentalism that focuses so heavily on the scientific aspect of what’s going on in the Niger Delta. She argues we need to include “invisible ecosystems” like religious and spiritual beliefs in the area in order to have a more wholistic approach to the issue.
Elum, Z. A., Mopipi, K., & Henri-Ukoha, A. (2016). Oil exploitation and its socioeconomic
effects on the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(13), 12880-12889.
This paper investigated the adverse effects of oil drilling on the land and people of the Niger Delta, as well as the ethical implication of this gross exploitation. They found that environmental degradation has led to major food insecurity as fish and crops are dying and farmland is no longer viable. With fishing and farming being not only how these communities nourish themselves, but also their livelihoods, they are forced to go into oil. They argue that oil multinationals need to modernize their facilities there to reduce the ridiculous amount of spills occurring.
Frynas, J. G. (2000). Oil in Nigeria: conflict and litigation between oil companies and village
communities (Vol. 1). LIT Verlag Münster.
This book investigated the legal side of oil in Nigeria by looking at litigation between oil communities and oil companies. While there is a clear power imbalance in favor of the oil companies, Frynas claims that in the 90s (keep in mind this book is from 2000) there was a rise in oil related litigation. Under capitalism, it is incredibly hard for small communities to win cases against big companies, but creating discourse and making these issues as public as possible is better than nothing. Oil villages would see more success if the government was willing to get involved. However, this could risk a decrease in oil production and the government would make less money, so they are hesitant.
Nduka, J. K. C., Orisakwe, O. E., Ezenweke, L. O., Ezenwa, T. E., Chendo, M. N., & Ezeabasili,
N. G. (2008). Acid rain phenomenon in Niger delta region of Nigeria: economic, biodiversity, and public health concern. TheScientificWorldJOURNAL, 8, 811-818.
This study investigated the pH of rainwater in oil communities and non-oil communities. Rain samples in oil communities registered as dangerously acidic, and can create health problems as well as infrastructure issues as it breaks down structures.
Nriagu, J., Udofia, E. A., Ekong, I., & Ebuk, G. (2016). Health risks associated with oil pollution
in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. International journal of environmental research and public
health, 13(3), 346.
This study investigated the mental health implications of oil on the people of the Niger Delta. Participants detailed the immense fear and anxiety they dealt with living in the Niger Delta. Factors such as potential pipeline explosions, oil fires, bad tasting water, and gas flares from smokestacks illicit a strong, negative emotional reaction in participants
Nwaobi, G. C., & TERRITORY, F. C. (2005). Oil Policy in Nigeria: A critical assessment
(1958-1992). EconWPA Public Economics.
This paper investigated early oil policy in Nigeria to determine what flaws in the original policy led to the degradation that has arisen today. They found that it neglected to consider the outcomes for the people of the Niger Delta who both live and work in and around drilling operations. Additionally, nothing was put in place to ensure proper maintained of facilities or equipment upgrades to prevent spills. Taking care of the people and environment where oil companies want to drill helps to save money, minimize risk, and maintain a safe, healthy workplace environment.
Oghenetega, O. B., Ana, G. R., Okunlola, M. A., & Ojengbede, O. A. (2020). Miscarriage, stillbirth, and infant death in an oil‐polluted region of the Niger Delta, Nigeria: A
retrospective cohort study. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 150(3), 361-367.
This study looked to identify a connection between oil exposure, stillbirth, and infant deaths. After statistical analysis it was found only infant death was associated with exposure to oil pollution. This poses issues for communities near heavy oil pollution.
Okorafor, N. (2011, March). Spider the artist. Lightspeed Magazine, 10.
This is a short, afro-futuristic story detailing the life of a woman living in the Niger Delta, right next to pipelines and drilling operations. In the story, robot creatures called Zombies are created to kill anyone who tries to siphon oil from the pipeline. This is a commentary on how illegal oil refineries and stealing from pipelines are becoming more common as people feel slighted by oil companies and want to make money for themselves.
Omoweh, D. A. (2005). Shell Petroleum Development Company, the state and
underdevelopment of Nigeria’s Niger Delta: A study in environmental degradation.
This book focuses specifically on Shell and the damdage is has caused in the Niger Delta. Ever since 1937 when Shell first began working Nigeria, they have been neglecting the people and decimating the land. The book goes on to detail the relationship Shell had with the Nigerian government and how that created the perfect environment for exploitation. It concludes with a more responsible plan to develop rural, oil producing areas in Nigeria by creating thoughtful policy that places the people and land ahead of profit.
Ordinioha, B., & Brisibe, S. (2013). The human health implications of crude oil spills in
the Niger delta, Nigeria: An interpretation of published studies. Nigerian medical journal: journal of the Nigeria Medical Association, 54(1), 10.
This paper investigated all the potential human health implications of oil spills in the Niger Delta, as well as the cause of these oil spils. 31.85% of spills were from unknown causes, 20.74% from third party activity, and 17.04% from mechanical failure. The spills pollute the land with various known carcinogens, trace metals, and radioactive materials that then bioaccumulate in certain crops. This pollution reduces the nutrient levels in crops, causes crops to die, and contributes to child malnutrition.
Orisakwe, O. E. (2021). Crude oil and public health issues in Niger Delta, Nigeria: Much ado
about the inevitable. Environmental Research, 194, 110725.
This paper discusses public health concerns that arise as a result of oil pollution, oil companies’ role in this, and what they should do to help. They propose using cumulative risk assessment (CRA) to comprehensively understand the scale of the problem. They also advocate for oi companies to engage in environmental medicine research to help create a waste-to-wealth program by generating data on how to use natural resources to address public health concerns and improving the environment.
Osoba, S. O. (1996). Corruption in Nigeria: historical perspectives. Review of African Political
Economy, 23(69), 371-386. Africa World Press.
This paper assessed the history of corruption in Nigeria and its prevalence. They discuss the ways in which corruption was able to take hold during the process of decolonization, destabilize the government, and continue to persist over the years. The paper takes a nihilistic view on this issue, claiming that corruption has become a way of life in Nigeria and how politics have deteriorated in winner takes all situations. They claim corruption can only be stopped by a popular participatory democracy.
Racial Disparities in Child Lead Exposure
Stephanie Adim
Henson, L. (2018). Surface Soil Metal and Metalloid Contamination Within the Urban Environment of Atlanta, Georgia. https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/geosciences_theses/117/
Researchers at Georgia State University conducted a geochemical and spatial analysis of 750 soil samples to test the determine severity of lead contamination in the soil in the Atlanta Urban environment. It was found that soil lead concentrations ranged from 10ppm to 3029ppm, with an average of 75 ppm. Lead enrichment of the soil was not driven by natural causes such as bedrock weathering, but rather through leaded gasoline and other transportation applications. This article highlights the issue of lead contamination in Atlanta.
Dickinson-Copeland, C. M., Immergluck, L. C., Britez, M., Yan, F., Geng, R., Edelson, M., Kendrick-Allwood, S. R., & Kordas, K. (2021). Increased Risk of Sub-Clinical Blood Lead Levels in the 20-County Metro Atlanta, Georgia Area-A Laboratory Surveillance-Based Study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(10), 5163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105163
Researchers at Emory University and Morehouse School of Medicine conducted research to characterize the distribution of elevated BLLs in children in a 20-county metro-Atlanta region. The sociodemographic and area-level risk factors of the elevated BLLs were determined. Utilizing data from the Georgia Department of Public Health’s Healthy Homes for Lead Prevention Program surveillance, 93,162 samples of venous blood were collected from subjects ages 2-6 in 2010 and 2018. More than half of the samples were found to have BLLs between 2 and 5 µg/dL. Figure 1 represents the hotspot analysis of the metro-Atlanta region for incidences of subclinical and clinal BLLs based on two age groups. In an analysis of the participant characteristics, it was also found that white children had lower rates of clinical and sub-clinical BBLs than black children. Also, non-Medicaid insurance, the proportion of renters in a given geographical area, and the proportion of individuals with a GED/high school diploma were found to be predictors of a child having elevated BLLs. This article provides a correlation between certain socioeconomic risk factors and elevated child lead exposures in Atlanta.
Distler, S., Saikawa, E. A new screening index to better target low-level lead exposure in Atlanta, Georgia. Sci Rep 10, 18087 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75000-0
A study conducted by researchers at Emory University utilized a screening index to ascertain low-level lead exposure in Atlanta. A total of 1,657,269 blood lead tests results were obtained from the Georgia Department of Public Health (DPH) between 1998 and 2018. The percentage of children with elevated BBLs (>5 μg/dL) was between 39% in 1998 and 1.1.% in 2018. The results of the priority screening index determined that there were clusters of high-priority tracts in the Westside of Atlanta, specifically English Avenue, and Vine City. These are known to be historically black neighborhoods with unemployment rates of more than 50%.
Rustin, R. C., Kuriantnyk, C., Lobsinger, B., & Charles, S. (2015). Use of geographical information systems to identify counties in Georgia with a high risk for childhood lead poisoning. https://augusta.openrepository.com/handle/10675.2/621033
Using geographical information system (GIS) technology and census housing data, the Environmental Health Team of the Georgia Department of Public Health (DPH) determined the counties in Georgia with a high risk of child lead poisoning. Data from the 2013 5-year American Community Survey provided researchers with information about median house age to determine housing risk factors of age and configure spatial maps. Figure 1. demonstrates that in urban counties, the risk for lead poisoning is high in areas with densely-clustered older housing. Specifically, the risk is higher in counties with a higher rate of homes built before 1950.
Rodgers, J. R. (2020). Grant Proposal to Reduce the Burden of High Lead Exposure in Children Through Community-Centered Education Programs in The Western Metro Area of Atlanta, Georgia (Doctoral dissertation, Emory University).
A graduate student at Emory University’s Rollins School of Public Health wrote a grant proposal in response to the EPA Request For Proposal Opportunity. Liveya, Inc. is a nonprofit organization that is conducting the LEADucate program, an educational program for lead poisoning prevention. This program is in partnership with the Family Health Center at West End, YMCA Atlanta, and the Georgia Department of Public Health. Liveya Inc. is seeking to allocate the funds from the grant to prepare an adult and community learning curriculum for lead exposure prevention and young children. The goal of the LEADucate program is to improve knowledge of household lead exposure and prevention methods for both individuals and communities.
Bloom, M. (2016, Jul 01). DRINKING WATER TESTED: 14 Atlanta schools show high lead levels. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution
In a 2016 article by the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, it was reported that Atlanta Public Schools have undergone lead testing, and more than half have been found to elevated lead levels. Some schools had sources such as water fountains or kitchen taps with levels as high as 15 times the federal limit for water systems.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2017, October). Westside lead site profile.
EPA. Retrieved March 16, 2022, from
https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.cleanup&id=0407160
A doctoral student at Emory University notified the Environmental Protection Agency of the elevated lead levels in samples collected from the Westside of Atlanta, classifying it as a superfund site. Through further inquiry, the EPA found industrial smelting waste thought to be the source of the contamination. Since 2018, ongoing residential sampling is being conducted in English Avenue and Vine City to determine the severity of the contamination. Eight hundred and 40 properties have been sampled, and nearly 40% require cleanup.
Rayam|WABE, L. (2022, February 3). Metal Recycling Plant Releasing Hazardous Waste in southeast Atlanta waterways. WABE. Retrieved March 16, 2022, from https://www.wabe.org/metal-recycling-plant-ordered-to-properly-manage-its-hazardous-waste/
In January 2022, the Environmental Protection Agency issued an emergency order to TAV Holdings to stop its operation due to its release of hazardous and solid waste. The metal processing facility in Southwest Atlanta was found to be the cause of elevated lead levels in waterways and soil proximal to the plant. The company, which has been operating since 2015, has never provided notice to the EPA regarding handling hazardous waste but is now required to submit a plan concerning their plans to address the lead pollution.
Yeter, D., Banks, E. C., & Aschner, M. (2020). Disparity in Risk Factor Severity for Early Childhood Blood Lead among Predominantly African-American Black Children: The 1999 to 2010 US NHANES. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(5), 1552. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051552
Yeter, Banks, and Aschner utilized data from the CDC to determine if racial disparity is a risk factor for early childhood lead exposure. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, which took a nationally representative sample of 2841 US children, ages 1 through 5 were analyzed. It was determined that Black children had a 2.8 times higher chance of having an elevated BLL( ≥5 µg/dL) than non-Hispanic White and Hispanic children. Even when stratified by risk factor, Black children had a 1.8 to 5.6 times higher chance of having an elevated BLL for every selected risk factor. For Black children specifically, 25% that reside in housing built prior to 1950 housing and 17% that live in poverty had elevated BLLs. This article provides a correlation between race and elevated blood lead levels in children on a national level
Hauptman, M., Niles, J. K., Gudin, J., & Kaufman, H. W. (2021). Individual- and Community-Level Factors Associated With Detectable and Elevated Blood Lead Levels in US Children: Results From a National Clinical Laboratory. JAMA pediatrics, 175(12), 1252–1260. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.3518
Researchers at the Boston Children’s Hospital conducted a nationwide study to determine the factors implicit in elevated BLLS in children. A total of 1,141, 441 blood lead samples from children, ages 0 to 6, living in all 50 states were collected. It was found that more than half of the sample had detectable BLLs with 1.9% having BLLs of 5.0 μg/dL. Children with public insurance had a greater chance of having detectable BLLs and the proportion of children with detectable and elevated BLLs increased significantly for pre-1950s housing and poverty quintiles. Also, children in zip codes with majority-minority populations had higher odds of detectable BLLs.
Barfield, K. L. (2021). The Effect of Poverty Levels and Minority Percentages on Lead Content in South Carolina Midlands School Drinking Water. Journal of the South Carolina Academy of Science, 19(2), 25–31.
Researchers in South Carolina determined lead concentrations in public schools of the Midland region in comparison to each school’s percentage of minority and poverty students. A total of 63 samples were collected from 21 schools that provided samples from three drinking water sources. It was found that there were significant correlations between the two socioeconomic factors (minority percentage and poverty percentage) and lead concentrations in drinking water. However, minority percentages are more significantly correlated indicating that it is a better predictor of lead concentration than poverty percentages. This article provides a correlation between two factors socioeconomic factors and lead contamination in a different city other than Atlanta
Stillo, F., M.S.P.H., & Gibson, J. M., PhD. (2018). Racial disparities in access to municipal water supplies in the American south: Impacts on children’s health. International Public Health Journal, 10(3), 309-323.
Researchers at the Gillings School of Global Public Health of The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill analyzed the quality of drinking water in African-American communities in Wake Forest, North Carolina. These urban communities have had to rely on unregulated private wells due to the significant history of these neighborhoods from using municipal water lines. Samples from the kitchen tap of 29 households were analyzed and found that 28% of the samples had lead levels that exceeded the 15-ppb health-based action threshold. The Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic (IEUBK) Model predicted that the lead levels of 10% of the households could increase child BLLs above the 5 µg/dL reference level. This article provides evidence of a racial bias in child lead contamination in a city other than Atlanta.
Robinson, T., Shum, G., & Singh, S. (2018). Politically unhealthy: Flint’s fight against Poverty, environmental racism, and Dirty Water. Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research, 1(2), 303–324. https://doi.org/10.30658/jicrcr.1.2.6
Robinson, Shum, and Singh use a critical race framework to attribute the Flint Water Crisis to a case of environmental racism. Throughout the article, the authors detail the history of General Motors and their negligence to the hazardous waste that was being released into the Flint waterways and the total disregard for the residents of Flint by the state and city government. It was not until physicians noted a statewide increase in BLLs in children, who were disproportionately African-American, that brought the topic of environmental racism into the picture.
Hanna-Attisha, M., LaChance, J., Sadler, R. C., & Champney Schnepp, A. (2016). Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint Drinking Water Crisis: A spatial analysis of risk and public health response. American Journal of Public Health, 106(2), 283–290. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2015.303003
Researchers at the Hurley Children’s Hospital/Michigan State University College of Human Medicine analyzed the differences in pediatric elevated BLLs before and after the Flint Michigan Water Crisis in 2013 and 2015, respectively. It was found that the rate of elevated BLLs increased from 2.4% to 2.9%. Geospatial analyses were also done and found that the highest increase in elevated BLLs occurred in disadvantaged neighborhoods within the city of Flint.
Kitman, J. L. (2015, June 29). The Secret History of Lead. The Nation. Retrieved March 16, 2022, from https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/secret-history-lead/
This article details the history of lead and how it became the contaminant it is known as today. It begins by describing how the dangerous effects of lead were known by historical figures nearly 3,000 years ago and detailing the significance of lead poisoning on the body. In 1921, engineers at General Motors discovered that a compound known as tetraethyl lead (TEL) reduced the sharp, metallic sound in the internal-combustion engines known as “knock” when added to gasoline. Instead of using ethyl alcohol, a non-toxic and sustainable compound, TEL was used as a gasoline additive because ethyl alcohol could not be patented and produced and profit. Although the deadliness of TEL was known by General Motors, gasoline was made with 1 to 3 parts of TEL starting in 1923. Well-known public health authorities from institutions such as Harvard, Yale, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology informed GM about the concerns with TEL. However, the sales of gasoline with the toxic additive continued to grow as GM profits increased. Even so, unprecedented numbers of death were reported at GM factories, but this information was kept from the public as profits continued to climb.