Question: Did your understanding of kinship change when you read these articles? If so, how?
The meaning of cosmology sets the framework for the rest of this discussion: Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines it as “a branch of metaphysics” or a theory “describing the natural order of the universe.” Studies of various cultures aid in explaining medical ethics. Advances in medicine have changed the circumstances we consider normal and complicated the factors that motivate our perceptions. Hence, the study of cosmology generates discussion about the bioethical problems we create.
Cosmology also elucidates how deeply ingrained our notions of kinship terms have become. Kinship has been extended to cultural, religious, and political spheres. We have adapted our lexical use of kin terms to reflect novel social situations.
“Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture”
Clifford Geertz explains that anthropology and ethnography are fields of study that use copious amounts of evidence to postulate about human behavior (9). His presentation alone comments on anthropology. He uses blinking as a representation for this type of evidence. After the example was sufficiently explained, only then did the author offer analysis and provide his assertions on the topic.
“Cultural analysis is (or should be) guessing at the meanings, assessing the guesses, and drawing explanatory conclusions from the better guesses, not discovering the Continent of Meaning and mapping out its bodiless landscape” (12).
Geertz acknowledges the limitations of observation as a method. Examples are, instead, valued because they uncover patterns in behavior. This allows us to talk about social constructs that humans have engineered in the first place (12). Experts simply observe and then attempt to make conjectures on the behavior’s significance. This analysis of anthropology helps explain the type of evidence that the authors of the following papers employ.
“Does Submission to God’s Will Preclude Biotechnological Intervention?”
Questions: Who should have the responsibility to choose risky but potentially life saving procedures? Various cultures present different reasons for their ethical considerations; What factors influence your morals on these issues?
Sherine Hamdy asserts the following: “ I argue against the dominant narrative: that religious fatalism obstructs people from pursuing biotechnological intervention” (144). Merely considering the science, without cultural implications, does not allow us to discuss the ethical problems that have arised. She chooses to show this phenomenon through debates about organ transplants in Egyptian Muslim communities (143).
Muhammad and Ali’s stories were told in order to question their behavioral motives. Through anecdotes, she implies that it is easy to lose sight of your “sense of self” through illness. Instead, we resort to moral and often religious beliefs to cope with disease (145, 149). They both acted not according to a “fatalistic” approach (144) but, rather aligned their actions with their strong sense of right and wrong.
Ali found it easier to accept an organ if the donor was anonymous. “His refusal, […] was in particular [due to the] social situations in which he had to overcome [like finding his own donor] in order to proceed with the transplant” (151). Once sure the technology would cause no harm against others, Ali agreed to getting the transplant. Patients weigh the medical benefits against “sociomedical calculations of risk, costs and benefits” (147).
Naturalizing Power: “Father State, Motherland and the birth of Modern Turkey”
Questions: Does the concept of “mother” restrict women’s independence? Have we ingrained typical gender stereotypes through the way we talk about kinship terms?
Carol Delaney asserts that through kinship language, we propagate basic notions of man as procreator and woman as nurturer. The terms “mother” and “father” were established through traditional gender stereotypes but now extend to many human ideologies.
The Turkish society exemplifies how “language, culture and ideas” transformed our speaking about our relationships (188). Citizens originally promoted a “fatherland” theory. A construct that explained the pride and the conquering nature of distinguishing themselves as a country (180). The roles switched when they were under attack. By resorting to calling their nation a “motherhood, ” the Turks were internalizing the value of protection and defense (184).
Hence, Delaney claims that humans constructed these kinship terms early on, but the meaning of kin has drastically changed. For instance, the Turks internalized “nationality” as a feeling, whereas, “citizenship is much more restrictive [and clear-cut] as a child with a Turkish father is a citizen” (188). Hence, the “blurred boundaries between the seemingly distinct social domains of family, nation and religious communities,” (178) shows how connected our ideas of family are in other aspects of life.
Muslim Medical Ethics: Decision-Making Processes among Contemporary ‘Ulama’
Questions: What is your interpretation of the following decisions on medical procedures? How do the regulations created define a larger sense of what is ethical?
Eich explores the implications of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and the creation of unnatural embryos. He asserts that “terminological inconsistencies, legal developments […] and manipulation of discussion” have shaped the following three bioethical conversations about reproductive technology (62).
The 1987 meeting of the Islamic Org. of Medical Sciences brought together scholars, lawyers and doctors to discuss Sharia law. After debates about linguistic terminology and questions of morality, the conclusion was that the beginning of life was not so clear. Science was “Islamized” because it, often, was not the best explanation for these complex moral issues (66). Being “human,” meant the “being” looked like a human and began “ensoulment” (67).
The meeting of 1989 addressed the extra embryos created by reproductive technologies and concluded they could be used for research because the embryo is not yet “human.” They interpreted abortion in a similar way. The Organization of Islamic Conferences (OIC) in 1990 was much more restrictive (72). Only the exact number of embryos should be created and any extra should be let die “naturally” (70). The “manipulation of discussion” (72) at this meeting resulted in a less democratic process and stringent religious guidelines.
Questions About the Writing Styles of These Readings: Each author had slightly different ways to presented an argument and incorporate evidence. Which paper(s) presented evidence that you found most effective and why?