Category: Uncategorized

By Duke McDaniels

Before Will Smith was known for causing head injuries, he was better known for their study. In his 2015 film “Concussion,” Smith portrayed Dr. Bennet Omalu, one of the most important scientists responsible for pioneering the study of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) in American football players. Dr. Omalu’s research is largely responsible for the current interest in the effects of constant concussions on players of contact sports, and when one is aware of and looking for these concussions in the midst of such sports, they cease to be mere accessories of the pastime and become impossible to overlook.

When I finally set off for the Stade de France after an intense internal debate about whether or not to attend the rugby game on the program schedule, this is the attitude I expected to have as a scientifically-inclined spectator. As someone with a generally low interest in professional sports, I had resolved to observe the rugby game to study the frequency of these head injuries in real time. So, when to my great surprise the players jogging onto the field were accompanied by a ball that was significantly more round and checkered than the rugby ball I had expected, I discovered in a shocking twist that what we were actually spectating was the France vs Denmark Nations League game. 

The distinction between rugby and soccer initially appeared to be night and day for me with regards to concussion frequency. 30 massive dudes charging at each other headfirst versus 22 dancing their way across the field with the slightest tap resulting in an Oscar-worthy performance? Come on. However, as I continued my mission of tracking head injuries, I realized they happened much more frequently than I expected. Despite the focus being on the lower parts of the player’s bodies, soccer is still very much a contact sport, and the neurology of the players supports this. A 2019 retrospective study by Mackay et al. found that among the nearly 8000 former professional soccer players they followed, the 15.4% which died across the length of the study were more likely to have a cause of death related to neurodegenerative disease than controls, and were also prescribed dementia medication more frequently (Mackay et al, 2019). While still not on the level of other sports, soccer players are just as much at risk of these types of injuries, as well as their long-term consequences. We as scientists and as fans (if you’re into that sort of thing) have a responsibility to make it known.

Mackay, D. F., Russell, E. R., Stewart, K., MacLean, J. A., Pell, J. P., & Stewart, W. (2019). Neurodegenerative disease mortality among former professional soccer players. New England Journal of Medicine, 381(19), 1801–1808. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1908483

This week Zoe, Grace and I went to a ballet at the Royal Opera of Versailles. We took the train down to Versailles in the rain and had a moment of panic when our connecting train was delayed. Thanks to our fantastic Uber driver, however, we made it to the palace just in time for the show. Seeing a ballet was my top bucket list item while in Paris, so this was a highlight of my time here so far. The Malandain Ballet Biarritz performed their contemporary ballet Marie-Antoinette choreographed by Thierry Malandain. The work explored the relationship between Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI from their wedding night in 1770 (she was 15 and he was 14) to the storming of Versailles in 1789. The coolest part of the experience for me was that the ballet depicted specific scenes in Marie Antoinette’s life, like watching the play Perseus with Louis XVI, that happened in the same theater we were sitting in. Being able to watch the ballet that takes place in Versailles from Versailles was definitely a unique experience that added a very special component to the show.

The final scene of the ballet was at the beginning of the French Revolution. According to legend, Marie Antoinette’s hair turned white overnight, on the day before she was to be executed. When I researched more about Marie Antoinette’s life after the show, I learned that this is a phenomenon that has been recorded a few times in history that is now referred to as “Marie Antoinette syndrome”. While “Marie Antoinette syndrome”, or the sudden whitening of hair, is largely believed to be a myth, Skellett et al. argue that the historical account of Marie Antoinette can simply be explained by either temporary hair dye washing or alopecia triggered by stress (Skellett et al. 2008). The link between stress and alopecia can be seen in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis that is involved in regulating stress hormones. Some patients with alopecia areata have had upregulated levels of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) receptors in hair follicles (Paus et al. 2009). CRH is a key hormone in the HPA axis that leads to the release of cortisol. Since Marie Antoinette was definitely experiencing extreme amounts of stress the night before her execution, her HPA axis was probably secreting a lot of CRH and a lot of cortisol. This evidence could then help explain the case of “Marie Antoinette syndrome” she experienced.

References:

Paus, R., & Arck, P. (2009). Neuroendocrine perspectives in alopecia areata: does stress play a role?. The Journal of investigative dermatology, 129(6), 1324–1326. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.111

Skellett, A. M., Millington, G. W., & Levell, N. J. (2008). Sudden whitening of the hair: an historical fiction?. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 101(12), 574–576. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2008.080337

Cynthia Martucci

This past Wednesday, a few of us visited the Eiffel Tower for a picnic on the grass. It was a lovely evening filled with friends, food (i.e. cheese, wine, and baguettes in typical French fashion), and laughs, set underneath the iconic setting of the Eiffel Tower. We definitely were not the only ones enjoying the scenery, as the park was packed with couples, family, and friends soaking up the sun on this fine summer night.

 

Constructed for the 1889 Worlds Fair, the wrought-iron lattice structure has become an emblem of the city and is recognized worldwide. The tower is actually the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world! When Gustave Eiffel designed the tower, he decided to engrave the names of 72 French scientists, engineers, and mathematicians. I had never realized this scientific connection on my visits to Paris before, and began to wonder whether there were any links to neuroscience. It requires a closer look at the arch, but they are there! One such name I found is Marie François Xavier Bichat. His name appears on the first floor of the tower, 14^th on the west facing side.

Xavier Bichat lived from 1771 to 1802, and trained in medicine in Lyon before moving to Paris. He was interested in investigating the pathology of diseases, and in 1799 he left his career as a surgeon to devote his time to experimental physiology, dissection, and autopsies to understand pathological anatomy. He is quoted to have slept in the morgue some nights in order to continue with as many dissections as possible. One of his greatest contributions was identifying and introducing 21 types of tissues as the basic elements of organs. Of even greater interest to us as neuroscience students is this pioneer’s understanding of the brain and nervous system. In his doctrine of life, he claims that the center of the animal life was the brain, and that of the organic life was the heart. For him, “life rests upon a tripod made of respiration, circulation, and nervation” (Haller 1981). He did, though, acknowledge that there is a dependent relationship between the heart and brain, in that the heart provides blood flow to stimulate cerebral tissue. In addition, he identified the importance of the ganglionic nervous system, and described it as a network of tiny, independent brains within the chest cavity. Overall, it is clear that Xavier Bichat deserves to have his name permanently inscribed on the Eiffel Tower and visible to the millions of visitors every year.

Reference:

Clarac, F., Barbara, J. G., Broussolle, E., & Poirier, J. (2012). Figures and institutions of the neurological sciences in Paris from 1800 to 1950. Introduction and Part I: Neuroanatomy. Revue neurologique, 168(1), 2-14.

Haller, J.S., 1981. American Medicine in Transition, 1840–1910. University of Illinois Press, Chicago, p. 13.

Ever since I was a little girl, I’ve loved chocolate. The evidence of this is immortalized in my house’s hallways where there is more than one framed photo of me with chocolate frosting or ice-cream smeared all over my face. So, when I heard that one of our excursions on this program was a chocolate-making workshop, I knew that it was my time to shine. 

On our trip to the chocolate museum, we had the opportunity to create and decorate multiple kinds of candies and chocolate bars to get a hands-on experience before exploring the museum full of chocolate facts. Though my work might not have been the prettiest in the room, I had fun exploring and trying new techniques in the process. In fact, I felt like six-year-old me all over again by the end of the workshop, with melted chocolate on my hands, face, and all over my apron.

Later in the museum, though, my friends and I found an interactive exhibit that explained chocolate’s effects on the body. The information detailed the effects of chocolate on the skin, bones, digestive system, mood, and multiple other bodily systems. Naturally, as a product of the fact that I’ve been thinking a lot about neuroscience lately, this made me wonder about the effects of chocolate on the brain. I had read literature regarding chocolate’s effect on mood and cognition but was curious as to whether or not it could have a more direct physical effect on brain structure and function. 

One paper I found explored the relationship between methylxanthines found specifically in chocolate, such as caffeine and theobromines, on neuronal plasticity. This study did acknowledge that in research, animal models exposed to higher levels of methylxanthines

can protect neurons from dysfunction and even death in the case of a stroke. This work eventually could potentially be translated to neurodegenerative disease, which is a fascinating real-world implication. This effect can also be translated to other methylxanthine-rich foods and beverages, such as tea and coffee. As someone who is an avid coffee and chocolate fan, I can’t complain about the findings of this paper. 

While we’re on the topics of chocolate, Paris, and chocolate in Paris, I figured I would leave you with an insider tip: the best hot cocoa in Paris is undoubtedly at Cafe De Flor. So, if you want to protect your neurons while also having a delicious drink break, head over to the 6th arrondissement and pick up a cup.  

References:

Camandola, S., Plick, N., & Mattson, M. P. (2019). Impact of Coffee and Cacao Purine Metabolites on Neuroplasticity and Neurodegenerative Disease. Neurochemical research, 44(1), 214–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-018-2492-0

Like a French reenactment of Willy Wonka and the chocolate factory (minus the Oompa Loompas), we visited ChocoStory this week to learn a little more about the ins and outs of chocolate making and decorating! From marshmallows to orange peels to chocolate solids, we experimented with several forms of chocolate goodies, even making our own candy bars! Some chose to decorate their delectable treats with corn flakes or Rice Krispie’s, others opted for hazelnuts or coconut flakes.

 

A picture of me and Joon while decorating our chocolate marshmallows.

Kennedy and I decorating our chocolate bars. 

For the majority of our decorating experience, we were given a choice between either milk or dark chocolate. Personally, I prefer milk chocolate, but several of my fellow chocolate decorators around me opted for dark chocolate, which made me wonder why some people may prefer dark chocolate over milk chocolate, or vice versa. This led me to an article on PubMed that investigated the tolerance for bitterness in chocolate ice cream suing solid chocolate preferences. To compensate for the natural bitterness of cacao, many candy/dessert companies will add high levels of milk, sugar, or corn syrup to increase the palatability of the product. Given the current obesity epidemic occurring in the United States and beyond, many experts are concerned about the amount of fattening additives in chocolate desserts. Thus, researchers sought to manipulate the amount of bitterness in chocolate desserts and subsequently observe consumer preferences. The goal of this study was to uncover the threshold for bitterness in chocolate products among a sample of frequent chocolate consumers. The sample was divided into groups that tasted varying levels of bitterness in chocolate, with a control group tasting baseline, “normal” chocolate and each subsequent group tasting increasing bitterness. Added bitterness was simulated using sucrose octaacetate (SOA), a safe food additive that is still strongly bitter at micro molar concentrations. Samples of varying bitterness were manufactured into ice cream at the Berkey Creamery at Pennsylvania State University (PSU). Subjects were recruited from the PSU community via email and indicated their chocolate preferences (milk vs dark) beforehand. As predicted, the group of subjects who indicated that they preferred milk chocolate had a lower bitterness threshold. On the other hand, the participants who had previously indicated that they preferred dark chocolate had a higher tolerance for the bitter SOA additive. Based on this study, I can conclude that I likely would also have a lower bitterness tolerance compared to say Joon who used more dark chocolate than me while decorating.

Overall, I learned a lot of new techniques about chocolate making and decorating through this experience, including how chocolate makers will add other ingredients in order to decrease the bitterness in milk chocolate, and that a lower bitterness tolerance correlates with a preference for milk over dark chocolate.

 

References:

Harwood, M. L., Loquasto, J. R., Roberts, R. F., Ziegler, G. R., & Hayes, J. E. (2013). Explaining tolerance for bitterness in chocolate ice cream using solid chocolate preferences. Journal of Dairy Science, 96(8), 4938–4944. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2013-6715