LING 343: Intercultural Discourse

The unique ethnic and multilingual nature in Singapore is fascinating yet sometimes perplexing. It is more culturally diverse than I had remembered and imagined; somehow everyone, including local Singaporeans, temporary expatriates, as well as immigrants from neighboring Asian countries, are able to make up this rather peaceful, tiny, multilingual country. Despite this “melting pot”, the two most spoken languages, English and Mandarin, brings most groups together. Among the 96.8% of literate residents, 73.2% of them are literate in at least two languages in 2015 (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2015). This statistic is reflected in my workplace as well; from casual conversations, I discovered that all of my co-workers are conversational fluent in least two languages, with many knowing three or more. Even though Singapore is located in Asia, English remains the top spoken language at home, with Mandarin, other Chinese dialects, and Malay trailing behind. Therefore, as Singapore continues to accelerate into an important business hub pushed by the “globalization of English” (Leeman and Modan 2009), linguistic landscapes in the country have certainly adapted to this development.

Based on personal observations and experiences, I realized the languages I am exposed to is very much dependent on the people I choose to associate myself with and where I travel in the city. For example, I communicate with all of my co-workers in the office using exclusively English, while I may choose to speak Mandarin ordering food in a Chinatown hawker center or at a food court in a mall. Luckily thus far, everyone who I have spoken to could understand at least one of the two languages.

Corporate development in Singapore draws several parallels with that in American Chinatowns. Recent changes “with Chinese text less visually prominent”, as well as “English, and not Chinese, bear[ing] the functional load of ideational communication” are also reflected in written words around Singapore (Leeman and Modan, 2009), evident from the signs located across the city and specifically in the MRT stations. The majority of signs, directions, and names feature only English or English and Mandarin. However, I have noticed a few signs in the subway stations that are translated into four languages, including English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil. I never understood the full reason behind this, but speculate it is because English is the most used language in the country; whether you’re from an Asian or western culture, most people can understand and read the basics of English (unlike some of the other Asian languages). Additionally, the signs featuring only one or two languages are normally ones that are more straightforward to understand; many times, there are symbols such as a single letter or colors to further indicate the message of the sign for individuals who may not be as fluent in the language.

Unlike DC’s Chinatown in the early days where they wanted to “preserve and promote the neighborhood’s Chinese status” (Leeman and Modan, 2009), I find Singapore having less of an urge to do the same. The Republic of Singapore, which was established after they gained independence back in 1965 (History of Singapore, 2019), is still very young. Nevertheless, the country has already become an international hub, making it difficult for the government to keep their own dialect in the linguistic landscape and to preserve the original culture. Despite the mixture of nationalities, most local Singaporeans still speak some form of Singlish, a colloquial Singaporean English and something unique to this country. Thus far, I have only encountered a handful of individuals who have had a very strong Singlish accent, making it difficult to understand. But for the most part, the Singlish I have heard is still very similar to standard English, since English is one of Singapore’s official languages and its use is encouraged by the government (Singlish, 2019).

Singapore’s linguistic landscape continues to amaze me every day. Discovering new aspects of its culture and people through the small interactions and observations provides a new lens to certain encounters. As I head on to the second half of my time here in Singapore, I hope to converse with locals, building towards a more well-rounded experience.

Singapore, in terms of a linguistic landscape, is extremely unique and varied. This is actually one of the things I love most about it- the population here is extremely global-minded, internationally aware, and also very considerate of cultural differences. While America may be the 19th century melting pot, I consider Singapore to truly be one of the most globalized cities in the world. One of the aspects of Singapore that reflects this is the language. While the official government language is English, there are actually 4 official languages of the country, which include Mandarin, English, Malay, and Tamil. This fact alone showcases the intercultural landscape of the city, and is seen all throughout the environment from bus signs, announcements on the subway, to the available international snacks sold within the grocery stores. In Singapore, the linguistic landscape is dominated by many different languages due to the multicultural aspect of the city. However, each language has its own connotations within the society but all serve vital functions within the city and are consequently appreciated. 

Leeman and Modan, in their investigation of Chinatown in DC and its implications community-wise and space-wise, present a classification system in which public signage is categorized: in terms of language, types of symbolic and ideational meanings communicated, the time period the business/institution was established, and the type of institution that the sign is posted on. I used this framework to examine different examples of signage in Singapore in efforts to deduce what impact it had on the linguistic landscape. I found that the usage of different languages was obvious, with many signs including languages outside of the scope of the 4 official languages in Singapore. There were signs that included Malay, Thai, Chinese, Cantonese, English, French, ect. Additionally, even walking around on the streets to and from work I picked up on different languages that were spoken in conversation, which seems to be the norm and is not uncommon here. For example, the janitor that comes in to clean our office speaks to my supervisor in Malay, which he is most fluent in, and my fellow intern in Mandarin which is the language that she is the most fluent in. However, we all converse in English when talking about work related topics. As evidenced by interactions like these, Singapore creates a thriving environment for a multilingual society. 

After spending a month in Singapore, however, I began to pick up on certain differences and connotations that arose when using different languages, and different trends that came with the multilingual culture. Due to the multilinguistic nature of Singapore, as a result, smaller communities have developed, for example little India, little Thailand, ect. There, the signs and linguistic landscape show the organic reflection of the culture of people that reside there, and thus the environment naturally gravitates toward using that language. However, I have noticed that the government street signs are in English. Most signs near more touristy areas, however, are written in many different languages, for example the subway or hotel signs. This is likely due to the amount of tourism from all over that Singapore receives: from surrounding countries, Europe, the States, and many more. However, I have noticed that in some cases in terms of tourism, English is the language marketed to many- all the bus tours and museum descriptions are written in English, and in many touristy places English is the language most commonly found on signs and advertisements. This may be due to the more universal aspect of English in Asia, or it could be the result of catering to a specific tourist group. Additionally, I have found that other languages like Mandarin or Malay signify a more local and authentic culture to Singaporeans, as it is commonly spoken within family settings, hawker centres (which are local food shops) and local attractions rather than tourist places. 

The linguistic landscape of Singapore is not clear-cut environment, but rather differing and dynamic. However, this is what makes it extremely interesting from a investigative perspective, is that since there are many different backgrounds and cultures here with a constantly changing environment. Since I have only been in Singapore for a month, I am looking forward to learning and experiencing more about the culture and different intricacies in terms of language.

Hong Kong is a modernized city with multilingual communities and diverse groups of people.  It is clear already that Hong Kong is “modernized,” judging by its advanced economy, developed infrastructure, and tracking with the mainstream trends.  However, the city is also “modern” in terms of its extensive use of languages “not widely spoken by the local populace,” which is English.  The big factor that could have contributed to Hong Kong becoming a multilingual and modernized location is its past history as a British colony.  There are many places named after British elements, such as Victoria Peak, Victoria Harbour, and Victoria Prison, all named after Queen Victoria.  After the U.K government restored Hong Kong to China, English continued to be used.  Putting infrastructural and economic development aside, Hong Kong is a modernized, cosmopolitan city because it demonstrates the usage of multiple languages visually and orally due to its historical status as a British colony.

According to Leeman and Modan, the wide use of English in Hong Kong demonstrates that Hong Kong became very cosmopolitan.  In the city, English is a language that is commonly used in public visually and orally.  In terms of the visual aspect, the language is commonly used to guide people when navigating.  For example, the city has many signs in the streets that are written in not only traditional Chinese but also English as well.  As shown in Figure 1, the instruction is written in both languages.  The same goes for Figure 2, where both the traditional Chinese and English words are naming the place Exit C leads to.  The oral aspect is interesting.  Hong Kong is, without a doubt, multilingual in this part as much as it is visually, as mentioned before.  However, it is still quite different.  The local people do not speak traditional Chinese; they use Cantonese, which is another spoken dialect used (besides Mandarin) to pronounce traditional Chinese characters.  On top of that, some of them are also familiar with speaking Mandarin as well, which makes Hong Kong an even more multilingual city; Cantonese, English, and Mandarin are the three most used languages in the community.  And although Cantonese is the most commonly used language, it is still very likely for the local people to understand some English and Mandarin if a foreigner were to interact with them.  Also, the language is not area-dependent.  Most neighborhoods demonstrate familiarity with the different languages.  So as a whole city, Hong Kong is a very melded multilingual community that opens foreigners to being capable of communicating with the local people in some way.

The answer to why Hong Kong is such a multilingual city today lies in its past as a British colony.  The British empire ruled Hong Kong for 156 years, transforming it into one of its most valuable ports for sea and air trade, particularly Victoria Harbour.  After being under the western influence for so long, Hong Kong saw little changes since 1997, when the British handed sovereignty back to China. “English continues to be the language of success in business and government.”  According to statistics, Hong Kong’s expatriate community continues to be three percent of the population, living financially well and not learning Chinese.  So despite being free from the British ruling, Hong Kong did not undergo drastic changes and in fact incorporated the western influence in its culture.

The word “modern” means more than just being mainstream, well developed, and being current.  For a city, it also means being globalized to the extent foreign languages become common to use in the area.  English, over the past century, has without a doubt become a globalized standard language that is very useful for navigating in the world.  Hong Kong not only uses Cantonese as its native language but also English as well.  Many of the local people know enough of it to communicate with foreigners.  The major factor to this is Hong Kong’s role as a British colony for over a century when western influence transformed the city’s linguistics forever.  Today, Hong Kong is considered a modernized city, characterized by its usage of multiple languages and inclusion of different kinds of people.

Payton Chin

LING_343

Dr. Kim

27 June 2019

W4: Linguistic Landscape

In Singapore, English and Chinese are two of the four national languages, the other two being Tamil and Malay. Most of my days here always involve these two languages, with more of English than Chinese. Because I know how to speak Mandarin Chinese, I don’t mind going to places that primarily speak Chinese. For example, I eat most of my meals at local food stalls, which are managed by older Chinese people. Since their English is hard to understand at times, I prefer ordering and conversing in Chinese to make it easier for both parties. Interestingly too, even though my company is in Chinatown, I only speak English for work; this is most likely due to the younger average age of my company, with the oldest person only being approximately thirty years old. From my daily commutes to Chinatown, I’ve realized that all public signs are written only in English, but I don’t believe this supports a monolinguistic community. On the contrary, this means that many different nationalities can now reside here, using English as a neutral language. Since everyone in Singapore has learned and knows English to some degree, it makes sense that public signs are written in English. However, signs by private businesses in Chinatown usually do have either all or some Chinese on it, focusing on a more local crowd. Additionally, the languages I hear on the streets are usually non-English. I usually hear Mandarin, but I also hear a fair amount of Cantonese being spoken when I walk. 

On the other hand, different neighborhoods have different written languages. I tend to shop a lot on Orchard Road, where the only language seen everywhere is English. A snapshot of the malls could easily be mistaken for the malls in the United States. I assume this to mean that Orchard Road caters to everyone, which I can affirm with my eyes when I see all the tourists and locals walking there. Because of many nationalities I see at Orchard Road, I also hear many different languages being spoken. Besides English and Chinese, I also hear Hindi, Hokkien, and various European languages from other tourists. The linguistic landscape in Singapore is very diverse due to the people who reside here. There isn’t one universal language because every area in Singapore has a different majority nationality, leading to an emphasis on a different language. 

The historical context behind Singapore’s linguistic landscape is different than places in the United States. Chinese people had already resided in Singapore for generations, and they all tended to live close together in the area that would come to be known as Chinatown in Singapore. Because of the influx of Chinese immigrants, Singapore’s Chinatown expanded to an entire district instead of just one subzone, like in Washington, D.C. Leeman and Modan stated in their article, “In the case of Washington DC’s Chinatown, the state and private enterprise use symbols of Chinese ethnicity and culture, including language, graphics, and architectural forms, to turn Chinatown into a commodity, marketing it and the things in it for consumption.” Chinatowns in the United States had to rely on government support to grow and were also created with the purpose to boost the city itself; “selling Chinatown as a unique neighborhood both international and ethnic, has been part of a downtown redevelopment strategy designed to ‘preserve the historic scale, character, and heritage’ and ‘make downtown pedestrian in scale, colorful, and lively,’” (Leenan and Modan 340). This is very different from the Chinatown in Singapore, which has been growing for over one hundred years ever since the first Chinese immigrants started living here. The linguistic landscape in Singapore supports a variety of nationalities. English, with its dominance over most of the world, is enough to attract many foreigners already, and combined with Chinese, Malay, and Tamil, many people from Southern Asia would also be comfortable settling here. 

Hong Kong, as an international city, has a mixed and interesting linguistic landscape. There are three dominant language in Hong Kong: Cantonese, English and Mandarin I actually put those three languages in order. It might be a little surprising to see there are so many languages in Hong Kong and Mandarin is only ranked in third place. This is because of Hong Kong’s unique history and its role as an international harbor. First, Cantonese is the most widely acknowledged language in Hong Kong and is the first language of most local people. Their TV series, movies and songs are all in Cantonese. Elders in Hong Kong may only understand Cantonese. However, Cantonese doesn’t have its own characters and use Chinese characters in writing (Even though they have some unique words and expressions that are not in Mandarin). Therefore, it’s a lot easier for Chinese to learn Cantonese even though the pronunciations are so different. It’s not surprising to see that English is another official language here because Hong Kong was a British colony before 1997. Most young people in Hong Kong are very fluent in English, even better than Mandarin. In my company, all official communications are written in English. I also write reports and researches in English. Mandarin is less dominant in Hong Kong since most local people started to learn Mandarin after 1997, the return of Hong Kong. Elders cannot speak and understand Mandarins but most students are able to do so. People around 30 and 40 can speak Mandarin, but their accent are very obvious. As I argued above, since Cantonese and Chinese use the same characters, people only know Cantonese can read Chinese.

One interesting picture I took is the sign inside the elevator in my hotel. As you can see, this sign is bilingual in English and traditional Chinese. I noticed that there are two “海逸” in this sign but they are translated differently.( The first and the last line)

At the bottom, “海逸” is translated into “Harbor plaza”, which is also the name of the hotel. In the top, “海逸” is translated by its Cantonese pronunciation “Hoi Yat”. This is interesting to see why they want to translate the same character in different way. I think the difference in translation represents different values behind them. For “Harbor Plaza”, it’s the name of the hotel and it’s easier for English speaker to understand its meaning. This translation is good to be used in the brand cause it’s more straight forward and delivers information to readers. “Hoi Yat” is different. “Hoi Yat Heen” is a Chinese restaurant inside the hotel and also run by the hotel. It wants to emphasize its Chinese and Cantonese side and they decide not to translate “海逸” into “harbor plaza” because it might be strange for a restaurant to be called as a “plaza”. In this way, as they use the Cantonese pronunciation directly, this restaurant clearly shows that it’s a Chinese restaurant in Cantonese style.

Even though Cantonese and traditional Chinese share the same characters, some expression and words differ from each other. There are some unique characters that are not common in Chinese, in deed, appear a lot in written Cantonese.

Those two pictures show some differences between written Cantonese and Chinese. The left one is written in English and traditional Chinese and the second one is written in Cantonese. Both of them contain Chinese characters. However, the right one use some characters in a different way. “唔” means “no” in Cantonese but it sounds like “emmm”, an expression represents hesitation. In Chinese, “不” means “no”. The reason is that “no” sounds like “em” in Cantonese and they just use “唔” to replace “不” in Chinese. The left is more formal and officla because it contains some important information such as AED and phone number of station staffs. It guarantees that Chinese readers won’t be misguided. The right one is an advertisement and the written Cantonese may be friendlier and more kind.

Singapore’s languages are as diverse as its people and cultures. The population is mainly comprised of ethnic Chinese (76.2% of the population), Malays (15.0%), and ethnic Indians (7.4%) (“Demographics”, 2019) and consequently, Mandarin, Malay, Tamil make up three of the four official languages of Singapore (S.l., 2014). The final official language is English (S.l., 2014), which is also the first language taught in school, the main language used in the workplace (“Languages”, 2019), and of course, the default language that people use when speaking with me. Despite my own limited speaking experiences, it is easy and interesting to observe, record, and reflect on the public use of languages used in Singapore.

The majority of signs, especially those that are public, show all four of the official languages of Singapore. The information is displayed first, and largest, in English, then second in Mandarin, third in Malay, and lastly, in Tamil. This format is consistent throughout all the signs that I observed. An example of this can be seen below in my photo of the Little India Arts Belt sign. Nevertheless, within specific ethic neighborhoods, such as Chinatown, Little India, and Kampong Glam, smaller street signs only present information in English and the one corresponding mother-tongue of that area, so Mandarin, Tamil, and Malay respectively. An example of this can be seen below in my photo of a Telok Ayer Street sign. Telok Ayer is a street located in Singapore’s Chinatown, and so consequently, the languages used on this sign are English and Mandarin.

Within Chinatown, there are also some individual private enterprise signs that show information exclusively in Mandarin. In these instances, the enterprises were often authentic Chinese restaurants, and so the signage was an important design element, but was not necessarily used for its communicative value, as there were people from all different ethnic backgrounds seated inside. This is a similar experience noticed by Leeman and Modan in their article where they discuss how the liberal use of Chinese characters in Washington DC’s Chinatown was not always used to communicate, but rather for its aesthetic value (Leeman and Modan, 2009, pg. 347).

In general, however, I think that Singapore’s use of all official languages on signage promotes these languages as a valuable cultural element. This is ultimately different from DC’s Chinatown where language was not constructed as “a tool to empower language minorities, promote interaction and community building”, but rather, for commercialization (Leeman and Modan, 2009, pg. 358). Instead, I think that Singapore is able to balance communication, ethnolinguistic value, local heritage, and community within its multicultural society.

This balance also extends past the public signage. For example, Singaporean schoolchildren are primarily taught in English, but are also required to learn their mother-tongue to make sure that they don’t lose contact with their traditions. In this way, and many others, the Singapore Government presents language as a “valuable cultural element worthy of preservation in its own right” (Leeman and Modan, 2009, pg. 358). Singaporean people themselves also keep their languages alive and part of society by publicly communicating with each other in their mother-tongues. For example, although English is the main language used in the workplace, my colleagues will often chat in Mandarin, and you always hear people speaking a wide range of languages on the street or on public transport.

As such a multicultural country, Singapore’s linguistic landscape could easily have been a confusing jumble, but instead, the government has achieved a fine balance between protecting its’ citizens’ heritage, communicating efficiently, and facilitating an environment that allows lots of different ethnic communities to live together harmoniously. I am excited to see how Singapore adapts in the future as it becomes an even more diverse society.

Works Cited

           Demographics of Singapore. (2019, June 24). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Singapore

Languages of Singapore. (2019, June 11). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore

Leeman, J & Modan, G. (2009), Commodified language in Chinatown: a contextualized approach to a linguistic landscape. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 13(3), 332-362.

S.l. (2014, July 03). Language. Retrieved from https://www.justlanded.com/english/Singapore/Singapore-Guide/Language/Language

Walking around in New York City, I couldn’t help but feel as though it is a near-perfect location for this essay. The city is multilingual (to the N^thdegree!) and takes pride in its melting pot of cultures. From Korean to Italian to Spanish to Chinese, New York offers the many opportunities for examples of different languages necessary for this essay. I also made sure to not neglect English, as it is, of course, the primary language of the city, and most of the signs posted around the city are in English. I have decided to look more specifically at how Spanish is used in New York, as I recognized there is a greater, stronger connection between New York City and Spanish than New York City and the other “secondary” languages spoken there, such as Chinese or Italian.

Spanish is all over the place in New York, and, frankly, challenges English in certain areas for being the primary language used. In the subway system, for example, I have noticed that there are a lot of signs in Spanish. Some of these signs are safety warnings, such as signs that encourage people to reach out for help when having mental health crises or encouraging them to carry naloxone, a drug that helps overdose victims. I would consider these signs to be “required” to be in multiple languages, as they are necessary for the public health and safety of the city. However, I would like to note that these types of signs are only in English and Spanish, indicating further the prevalence of Spanish and Hispanic culture in New York City. This is effectively promoting Spanish to the level of “primary language”, as it is considered absolutely paramount that there be safety signs posted in Spanish. Additionally, there are many advertisements around the city that are posted in Spanish, and I always trust that businesses are primarily concerned with maximizing the public’s awareness of them. Thus, considering the prevalence of Spanish language advertising, it stands to reason that Hispanic culture is relevant enough in New York City to warrant companies spending extra money in order to capture Hispanic peoples’ business.

This can be related with the Leeman and Modan article in that like Washington DC’s Chinese community, the Hispanic community of New York City became important enough to garner attention from companies run by people who are not of the same background as those communities. In Leeman and Modan’s article, they wrote about the second wave of gentrification in Washington DC’s Chinatown, and in particular the active decisions made to redesign Chinatown to look more aesthetically distinct from the rest of the city. They wrote, “Of particular interest for scholars of LL are the guidelines concerning language: Signage and Chinese characters are important design elements. Liberal use of Chinese characters in signage and decoration will provide needed Chinese ambiance in Chinatown” (Leeman and Modan, pg. 347). Vitally, it was an active decision made by the municipal government of Washington DC as well as the businesses that populated DC’s Chinatown that fostered the city’s unique Chinese identity. Similarly, it is an active decision by both the municipal government of New York City and the businesses that advertise on the subway to use Spanish. Additionally, one could even argue that New York’s use of Spanish makes a larger statement than Washington DC’s use of Chinese because Washington DC only utilized the Chinese language in a particular section of the city, where only a limited number of people in the city are exposed to the language. The subway system, on the other hand, runs throughout the entirety of New York City and, according to www.ny.com, 4.3 million people ride the New York City subway on a daily basis.

For a city so proud of its multilingual identity as New York, there remains a dominant presence of English as the main language. However, as time goes by, there will likely be an equivalence made between the use of Spanish and the use of English in the city, as the New York Hispanic community is a population that is only going to grow from here.

This summer I am doing an internship in the city of Dublin and the more time I have spent in here, the more I have been able to understand its unique linguistic landscape. Coming to Ireland I though the only language spoken here was English however, as I begun to explore Dublin; began using its public transport; and visiting different parts of the city, I noticed that there was a less popular, traditional Irish Gaelic language. Irish is seen as the official national language of the country and was created by its original settlers (Pariona, 2016). However, English is the most spoken language; 97.5% speak English and 17% speak Irish (languageknowlede.eu). After examining the frequency of the 2 languages on public signs, where they were both spoken, and having a discussion about this with my Irish co-worker, I came to a conclusion on Ireland’s linguistic landscape. Unlike Leeman and Modan, I found that language revitalization and empowerment of the minority language is the goal in this case. Irish Gaelic is seen as a “valuable cultural element worthy of preservation” in Ireland, so its use is encouraged through putting it on public signs (Leeman and Modan, 2009, pg. 358).

As expressed by Leeman and Modan, the term ‘linguistic landscape’ is very complex. Most researchers see it as just ‘the language of public road signs advertising, billboards, street names etc., as defined by Landry and Bourhis. (Leeman and Modan, 2009). Contrastingly, Leeman and Modan expand the term by suggesting that it also concerns social and political histories; the economy at hand; and the environment as well. (Leeman and Modan, 2009, pg. 332-333). Another important thing they point out is that linguistic landscapes are subjective representations and not objective.

Given this, I began my task, of determining my subjective view of Ireland’s linguistic landscape. During my first few days in Dublin, I would explore the city mainly by walking and using taxis, and mostly go to the city centre area. Throughout this time, I thought that Dublin was a monolingual city. The only language I noticed being used was English, all the billboards and shops in the city centre were written only in English. I did hear other languages whilst walking around the city centre but languages like French and Russian, so I assumed the people speaking those were just tourists. My view of the city’s linguistic language changed however when I became better assimilated in the city.

I eventually started using public transport, mostly the bus, and visited the outskirts of Dublin as well as some surrounding cities. Doing so made me realize the use of Irish Gaelic more. On the buses I saw that for every stop, the name would be written and announced in English first, then Irish second. I then asked my co-worker about language in Ireland and was told more about Irish Gaelic, which she spoke fluently. After I heard her speak it, I knew what it sounded like and began to notice is more around town (but still not at the city centre however). I heard people speak Irish in the supermarket I do my grocery shopping at, and saw that public signs in the area I live are in both English and Irish. The Irish language is hardly used by private enterprises however. I haven’t seen a shop or business whose name is written in both English and Irish – just the public signs.

My co-worker then explained to me cultural importance of Irish Gaelic. The language is compulsory in school, even though most people don’t enjoy learning it since it is a hard language to grasp, the government wants to make sure it doesn’t die out. She also stated that it is spoken predominately in certain parts of Ireland. Because Dublin is one of the most multi-cultural, commercialized and urban cities in Dublin, you would not hear Irish spoken as much as you would in other parts of Ireland. So I came to the conclusion that the public signs and buses are written in Irish along with English to encourage people to speak it more.

(Photos showing public signs/transport in Ireland, using both English and Irish Gaelic)

Works Cited

Languages in Ireland. (n.d.).Retrieved from https://languageknowledge.eu/countries/ireland

Leeman, J., & Modan, G. (2009). Commodified language in Chinatown: A contextualized approach to linguistic landscape1. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 13(3), 332-362.

Pariona, A. (2016, November 03). What Languages Are Spoken In Ireland? Retrieved from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-ireland.html

Hello, Intercultural Discourse class members!

We will use this space to share and comment each other’s essays across sections. As you are in different places (such as San Fransisco, Dublin, Berlin, Singapore, etc.), we want you to share your experience with students in other countries as well.